乳腺癌是最常见的女性恶性肿瘤,同时也排在癌症相关死亡前列[1],绝大多数乳腺癌在中晚期才被发现,患者预后差,目前关于乳腺癌发生机制不明,所以乳腺癌的早诊、早治对于改善患者预后非常重要。
在肿瘤生长过程中,血小板(platelets,PLT)扮演着重要角色。恶性肿瘤患者可伴有PLT增多[2],且肿瘤进展期会发生PLT功能障碍及血栓形成。有研究[3]发现肿瘤患者的PLT RNA谱与非肿瘤患者不同。Stone等[4]证实用小干扰RNA(small interfering RNA,siRNA)使血小板生成素表达沉默可缓解实验性副肿瘤性血小板增多症,进而发挥抗肿瘤作用。Roswall等[5]在小鼠体内抑制血小板源生长因子CC(platelet-derived growth factor CC,PDGF-CC)的活动,使三阴性乳腺癌转变为激素受体阳性型乳腺癌,增加内分泌治疗敏感性。Gresele等[6]发现规律口服阿司匹林进行抗PLT治疗4年及以上时间的恶性肿瘤患者病死率降低。越来越多的研究发现乳腺癌患者的PLT参数与正常人差异明显[7-9],且PLT在乳腺癌的发生、血管生成及远处转移中发挥重要作用。笔者综述乳腺癌患者PLT参数特征、PLT与乳腺癌相互作用机制、PLT在乳腺癌治疗中的潜力等方面的研究进展,期以为乳腺癌的诊断和治疗提供新的角度。
约20%~60%的恶性肿瘤伴PLT计数增多,尤其在肿瘤晚期[2],PLT增多症与乳腺癌特异性存活率下降以及静脉血栓形成风险增加有关[10]。平均PLT内容物浓度反映PLT活化后的脱颗粒水平,王海燕等[11]回顾性分析103例乳腺癌患者与117例纤维腺瘤患者的PLT参数,发现乳腺癌组的平均PLT内容物浓度显著低于纤维腺瘤组,这可能是由于肿瘤状态下PLT活化水平升高,发生脱颗粒,导致PLT内容物降低。血小板分布宽度(platelet distribution width,PDW)是一种衡量PLT异质性的指标,是PLT活化标志物,Huang等[7]发现PDW>16.8%的乳腺癌患者与PDW≤16.8%的患者相比,总生存期明显缩短。Takeuchi等[8]对275例乳腺癌患者进行10年的随访,发现PDW/PLT升高的患者无病生存率下降。Kim等[9]回顾性分析105例接受新辅助化疗的乳腺癌患者的中性粒与淋巴细胞比值及PLT与淋巴细胞比值与新辅助化疗效果及预后的关系,结果显示低比值组患者对新辅助化疗更敏感,无进展生存期及无病生存期更长。
恶性肿瘤患者的PLT RNA种类及含量取决于骨髓巨核细胞的转录状态,也受剪接RNA的封存、RNA的释放以及PLT循环过程中前体mRNA特异性序列剪接的影响。Wurdinger等[3]发现乳腺癌患者的PLT RNA谱发生改变。PLT通过转移肿瘤相关生物分子对抗肿瘤,同时这些生物分子进入PLT内部,导致PLT自身RNA发生变化,这种PLT被称为“肿瘤强化PLT(tumor-educated blood platelets,TEPs)[12]”。Denis等[13]将TEPs的序列与公共数据集进行比对,发现其含有大量与癌症组织、缺氧、PLT信号和细胞骨架等相关的序列,这可能是TEPs 促进肿瘤发生状态的“预警”,TEPs中与翻译、T细胞免疫及白介素信号相关的RNA较少,说明TEPs对参与这些生物过程的RNA或其向蛋白质翻译的需求减少[13-14]。
恶性肿瘤患者除了TEPs的RNA含量改变外,PLT亚群也发生改变。网织血小板(reticulated platelet,RP),也称为未成熟血小板,是从骨髓中新释放入血的年轻PLT,RP比成熟PLT体积更大、结构更加致密、含有更多的活性颗粒、有残余mRNA和粗面内质网成分,可以反映骨髓产生PLT的能力[15],更有助于血栓形成,Ornelas等[16]推测在恶性肿瘤患者中,血液中较多的RP可能和其血栓事件发生概率上升有关,且RP能够隔离肿瘤来源的核酸和蛋白质等生物标志物,帮助循环肿瘤细胞(circulating tumor cells,CTCs)隐蔽,促进肿瘤远处转移。
炎性因子促进PLT产生和激活。PLT可以被看作是免疫系统的“扫描士兵”,可以感知细菌进入血液、与淋巴细胞交叉通讯、调节免疫细胞外渗,在肿瘤进展过程中,白介素1(interleukin-1,IL-1)、白介素6interleukin-6,IL-6)、白介素8(interleukin-8,IL-8)、白介素12(interleukin-12,IL-12)、白介素18(interleukin-18,IL-18)、干扰素γ(interferon-γ,IFN-γ)和肿瘤坏死因子(tumor necrosis factor,TNF)等炎性细胞因子上调,诱导巨核细胞成熟,导致循环系统中未成熟血小板的产生和释放[7]。癌细胞可以释放多种PLT活化介质如二磷酸腺苷(adenosine diphosphate,ADP)[17]、血栓烷A2(thromboxane A2,TxA2)[18]或通过细胞间直接接触来诱导PLT活化[19],活化PLT释放多种细胞因子,诱导癌细胞增殖及转化,减少癌细胞局部凋亡和缺氧[20]。PLT释放的血管内皮生长因子(vascular endothelial growth factor,VEGF)通过PI3K/PKC信号通路触发VEGFR2-整合素协同信号通路促进癌细胞增殖[21],分泌血小板源生长因子(platelet derived growth factor,PDGF)等细胞因子促进肿瘤生长[22]。PLT释放的转化生长因子β(transforming growth factor-β,TGF-β)与肿瘤细胞直接接触并激活细胞中的TGFβ/Smad和NF-κB通路,诱导上皮-间质转化(epithelialmesenchymal transition,EMT),促进癌灶的侵袭及转移[23-24]。PLT来源微粒可以进入肿瘤细胞内以微小核糖核酸(microRNA,miRNA)依赖的方式调节原癌基因和抑癌基因的表达程序[25]。
乳腺癌组织的血管生成受肿瘤微环境调节,其中乳腺癌干细胞发挥重要作用[26-27]。肿瘤组织新血管的形成主要有两种假说,一种是癌细胞在血管生成拟态过程中发生转分化,另一种是癌细胞在镶嵌血管形成过程中与血管壁结合,这两种机制都依赖于刺激因子促进新血管形成[28]。有研究[29]发现PLT释放物和乳腺癌细胞协同促进内皮细胞毛细血管样管的形成,PLT通过向肿瘤提供多种促血管生成因子,如VEGF、PDGF和碱性成纤维细胞生长因子(basic fibroblast growth factor,bFGF),并通过刺激这些因子的表达,创造一个支持新生血管的环境,防止肿瘤出血[2,30-31]。Bhanu等[32]发现PLT的α-颗粒中囊泡相关膜蛋白8(vesicle-associated membrane protein 8,VAMP8)能够吸引募集骨髓细胞至肿瘤组织中的低氧应激点,有助于肿瘤内血管的形成。
癌细胞诱导PLT聚集、活化,PLT帮助癌细胞免疫逃逸并促进癌转移灶生长。一些研究提出肿瘤细胞诱导PLT聚集(tumor cell induced platelet aggregation,TCIPA)的能力与其转移潜能之间的相关性[33-34],Canobbio等[35]发现肿瘤细胞诱导的PLT聚集是由血浆中产生少量凝血酶驱动的PLT活化和分泌触发的,PLT分泌的ADP形成正反馈,进一步促进PLT聚集。活化PLT的局部聚积伴随着生物活性物质的释放,其可能影响肿瘤组织修复、血管生成和癌症进展[36]。PLT来源的溶血磷脂酸能加速溶骨性骨转移[37],在乳腺癌中,PDGF通过NF-кB信号通路促进肿瘤转移[38-39]。PLT与CTCs结合后,将主要组织相容性复合体1(major histocompatibility complex1,MHC1)类蛋白转移到CTCs来对抗自然杀伤细胞[40],RP能够隔离肿瘤来源的核酸和蛋白质等生物标志物,协助CTCs隐蔽[16],促使CTCs逃避免疫系统攻击,PLT形成细胞-纤维蛋白-血小板复合物聚集在CTCs周围或阻滞肿瘤细胞,为其提供机械保护,使它们免受血流动力学破坏,并介导癌细胞聚集及其与内皮细胞的结合,从而建立转移位点[40-42]。PLT激活后可以在转移生态位释放生长因子和促血管生成因子,形成一个刺激癌转移灶生长的微环境[43]。
在女性乳腺癌患者中,VEGF、TGF-β1和血小板反应蛋白1(thrombospondin 1,TSP1)这3 种物质对肿瘤血管生成和癌症进展具有重要意义[44-45],研究[21,46]发现通过ADP、蛋白酶激活受体1、蛋白酶激活受体4和胶原受体激活PLT,可增加乳腺癌患者VEGF、TSP1和TGF-β1分泌。P2Y12受体是PLT表面主要的ADP受体,是PLT活化的重要信号放大因子,P2Y12受体介导PLT调控肿瘤转移,抑制此受体可以降低VEGF、TSP1和TGF-β1分泌[47]。抑制PLT聚集的药物,如替格瑞洛、氯吡格雷、普拉格雷等靶向抑制血栓形成所必需的受体例如ADP受体等来调节肿瘤细胞与PLT的相互作用以及血管生成[48],进而抑制乳腺癌小鼠模型中癌症的远处转移[49]。
Shirai等[50]合成小鼠和灵长类特异性反义寡核苷酸(murine- and primate-specific antisense oligonucleotides,THPO-ASO),在不阻断肝外促血小板生成素基因(hepatic thrombopoietin gene,THPO)表达的情况下使肝脏THPO的表达沉默。他们给6周龄的MMTV-PyMT转基因自发乳腺癌小鼠模型注射THPO-ASO,这种小鼠在2~3个月内由导管异型发展为血小板生成素受体阴性的致命侵袭性乳腺癌[51],THPO-ASO治疗延长了平均安乐死时间,降低了全身PLT活化标记血小板因子4、循环血浆VEGF、与PLT结合的肿瘤血管的百分比以及肿瘤内血管密度、小鼠肿瘤中有丝分裂S期细胞增殖指数Ki-67阳性细胞的数量,提示THPO-ASO处理可以抑制细胞增殖,他们的实验表明正常止血能力范围内PLT计数的减少可以抑制小鼠乳腺癌的进展[50]。Demers等[52]发现在乳腺癌小鼠模型中,PLT计数减少可选择性诱导增强肿瘤血管的通透性,利于化疗药物进入肿瘤内部,增强抗癌效果。
有研究[53]表明血小板源生长因子受体α(platelet-derived growth factor-α,PDGFR-α)的表达可能是乳腺癌中具有干细胞特性或经历了上皮-间质转化的恶性细胞的特征。PDGF-CC介导的旁分泌通路是人体乳腺癌中重要的信号转导途径[5]。在实验小鼠模型中,通过免疫染色分析发现,在12.58和MDA-MB-231乳腺癌细胞系中,最初雌激素受体表达水平微弱,而在抗血小板源生长因子C(platelet-derived growth factor C,PDGF-C)抗体6B3治疗后,雌激素受体的表达显著上调,这一结果证实基于PDGF-CC的旁分泌信号通路在三阴性乳腺癌中建立雌激素受体的表达缺失中有很大作用,而针对PDGF-CC的基因或靶向抑制药物可以使三阴性乳腺癌转化为雌激素受体阳性状态,增加对内分泌治疗敏感性[5]。
基于血液的“液体活检”为微创分子诊断提供了一种手段,克服了组织获取的局限性,但是目前基于血液的生物源对癌症诊断的敏感性欠佳,到目前为止,包括血浆DNA、外泌体和CTCs等在内的基于血液的生物源仅有个别被用于癌症诊断[54]。
Best等[55]认为PLT可以作为一种全能生物分子,为诊断肿瘤、鉴别肿瘤类型、肿瘤分子分型提供可能,他们通过对283份PLT样本进行mRNA测序,鉴定出228 例局部和远处转移的癌症患者,55例健康个体,准确率为96%,在非小细胞肺癌、结直肠癌、胶质母细胞瘤、胰腺癌、肝胆癌、乳腺癌六种不同的肿瘤类型中,可以正确地识别原发肿瘤的位置,准确率为71%,此外,用TEPs mRNA图谱可以准确区分MET或HER2基因阳性及KRAS、EGFR或PIK3CA基因突变的肿瘤。
Shirai等[50]猜测细胞毒性药物一方面抑制巨核细胞生成,另一方面能抗肿瘤,所以减少PLT是否对抗肿瘤发挥了作用?但是目前临床上特异性抗PLT药物会导致止血缺陷这种严重并发症,所以抛开PLT的止血作用单独研究其和肿瘤的关系是困难的,未来需要更安全,特异性更强的PLT抑制剂助力相关研究。
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Recent progress of role of platelets in occurrence,development and treatment of breast cancer